The reconstruction of Mauryan history relies on a combination of literary and archaeological sources.

Literary Sources

• Kautilya's Arthashastra: Written in Sanskrit, combining prose and verse (Mahabharata style). Comprises 15 books (parts), 180 chapters, and 6000 shlokas. It is a treatise on statecraft, economic policies, and military strategies, rather than a book on pure economics.
• Megasthenes' Indica: Written by the Greek ambassador Megasthenes, who was sent by Seleucus Nicator to Pataliputra around 302 BCE. The original text is lost. Its fragments survive in the writings of later Greek and Roman historians like Arrian, Strabo, Diodorus, and Pliny. It describes Pataliputra as a well-planned city, and details the 7-tier caste system.
• Vishakadutta's Mudrarakshasa: A Sanskrit play written during the Gupta period. It narrates the political drama of how Chanakya (with Chandragupta Maurya) overthrew the Nanda ruler Dhanananda. It refers to Chandragupta as Vrishala and Kulahina (meaning low-born or of low social background).
• Buddhist Literature:
• Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sinhalese Chronicles from Sri Lanka): Details the Third Buddhist Council and Ashoka's efforts to propagate Buddhism to Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
• Divyavadana: Details Ashoka's life, his mother Subhadrangi (or Dharma), and his suppression of the Taxila revolt.
• Jataka tales: Describe socio-economic conditions.

Chandragupta Maurya (321 BCE – 297 BCE)

• The Founder: Overthrew Dhanananda with the aid of Chanakya (Kautilya/Vishnugupta).
• Greek References: Mentioned as Sandrocottus or Androcottus by writers like Justin, Appian, and Plutarch. William Jones (1784) was the first scholar to identify Sandrocottus as Chandragupta Maurya.
• Seleucid War (305 BCE): Defeated the Greek ruler Seleucus Nicator. By treaty, Seleucus ceded four strategic territories to Chandragupta:
• Paropanisadai (Kabul)
• Aria (Herat)
• Arachosia (Gandhara/Kandahar)
• Gedrosia (Baluchistan)
• Matrimonial Alliance: Married Seleucus's daughter, Helena. In return, Chandragupta gifted 500 war elephants to Seleucus.
• The Sudarshana Lake: Constructed during his reign under the supervision of his provincial governor (Rashtriya/Governor) Pushyagupta Vaishya in Girnar/Junagarh (Saurashtra, Gujarat).
• Abdication and Death: Embraced Jainism and abdicated in favour of his son. Spent his final days at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) with Jain Acharya Bhadrabahu, performing the Jain ritual of starvation called Sallekhana / Santhara.

Bindusara (297 BCE – 272 BCE)

• Titles: Known as Amitraghata (Sanskrit: "slayer of enemies") or Amitrochates in Greek texts. Referred to as Bhadrasar or Varisar in the Vayu Purana and Simhasena in Jain literature.
• Foreign Relations:
• Wrote to Antiochus I (Syrian ruler) requesting: sweet wine, dry figs, and a Sophist (Greek philosopher). Antiochus sent the wine and figs but refused the philosopher, stating that Greek laws prohibited selling/sending philosophers.
• Host to foreign ambassadors: Deimachus (sent by Antiochus I of Syria) and Dionysius (sent by Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt).
• Religious Beliefs: Patronised the Ajivika Sect (founded by Makkhali Gosala, who propounded the theory of determinism/Niyati-vada).
• Taxila Rebellion: Quelled a major rebellion in Taxila (between Indus and Jhelum). He first sent his eldest son Susima (Suman), who failed, and then sent Ashoka, who suppressed the rebellion ruthlessly.

Ashoka the Great (272 BCE – 232 BCE)

• Accession: Served as governor of Taxila and Ujjain during Bindusara's lifetime. Following Bindusara's death, a 4-year succession civil war (272–268 BCE) delayed his formal coronation. Buddhist chronicles state he killed 99 brothers (sparing the youngest, Tissa) with the assistance of minister Radhagupta.
• Kalinga War (261 BCE): Fought in the 9th year of his reign. Described in the 13th Rock Edict. The massive loss of life (100,000 killed, 150,000 captured) led to a deep psychological shift.
• Ideological Shift: Abandoned Bherighosa (conquest by war) in favour of Dhammaghosa (conquest by cultural/moral law).
• Conversion to Buddhism: Converted by the young Buddhist monk Nigrodha (first) and later mentored by Upagupta.
• Dhamma Propagation: Initiated the post of Dhamma Mahamatras in the 14th year of his reign. Sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) to spread Buddhism.

Ashoka was the first Indian ruler to communicate directly with his subjects through stone inscriptions.

Script & Language Matrix

• Brahmi: Used across the majority of the Indian sub-continent (written left to right).
• Kharosthi: Used in the North-West frontier (Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra) (written right to left).
• Greek and Aramaic: Used in border regions of Afghanistan (Kandahar).

HISTORIC INSCRIPTION DISCOVERIES
• Discovered: 1750 by Padri Tieffenthaler
• Deciphered: 1837 by James Prinsep (Brahmi Script)
• Topra & Meerut Pillars: Moved to Delhi by Firoz Shah Tughlaq
• Kausambi Pillar: Moved to Allahabad/Calcutta by Jahangir

The 14 Major Rock Edicts

Minor Rock Edicts & Pillar Edicts

• The Four Key Minor Rock Edicts: Ashoka is mentioned by his personal name (Ashoka) in ONLY four edicts:
• Maski (Karnataka)
• Nettur (Andhra Pradesh — as per slide classification)
• Brahmagiri (Karnataka)
• Gujjara (Madhya Pradesh)
• Rummindei Pillar Inscription (Nepal): Records Ashoka's visit to Lumbini (birthplace of Buddha) in his 20th year. It is a purely financial/economic inscription. He reduced the land tax (Bhaga) to 1/8th and completely abolished the religious tax (Bali).
• Nigali Sagar Inscription (Nepal): Records his visit to expand and worship the stupa of Kanakamuni (Konagamana) Buddha.
• Queen's Edict (Allahabad-Kosam Pillar): Mentions his queen Karuvaki and her charitable donations.
• Sarnath Lion Capital: Adopted as the National Emblem of India on 24th January 1950. Features four Asiatic lions standing back-to-back. The abacus is carved with four animals separated by Dharma Chakras: Lion, Elephant, Horse, and Bull resting on an inverted lotus.

Mauryan administration was a highly centralized, bureaucratic monarchy.

Kautilya's Saptanga Theory of State

Kautilya defined the state as an organic whole consisting of seven elements (Saptanga):
* Raja (King): The head/brain.
* Amatya (Secretaries/Ministers): The eyes.
* Janapada (Territory & Population): The limbs.
* Durga (Fort): The arms.
* Kosha (Treasury): The mouth/face.
* Danda (Army/Force): The mind.
* Mitra (Friend/Ally): The ears.

Provincial Administration

The empire was divided into five primary provinces, each ruled by a royal prince (Kumara / Aryaputra) acting as viceroy:

                 [NORTH] Uttarapatha (Capital: Taxila)
                               │
[WEST] Avantipatha ── [CENTRAL] Prachi (Capital: Pataliputra) ── [EAST] Prachyapatha (Capital: Tosali)
 (Capital: Ujjain)             │
                 [SOUTH] Dakshinapatha (Capital: Suvarnagiri)

Administrative Hierarchy

King (Raja — Supreme Executive, Military & Judicial Head)
  → Province (Chakra — governed by Kumara / Aryaputra)
    → Division / District (Ahara / Vishaya — governed by Pradeshika & Rajuka)
      → Sub-District Group (Sthaniya — 800 villages)
        → Sub-District Group (Dronamukha — 400 villages)
          → Sub-District Group (Kharvatika — 200 villages)
            → Village Cluster (Sangrahana — 10 villages — managed by Gopa)
              → Village (Gramani / Gramika — assisted by Gramvriddhas)

City Administration (Pataliputra)

Megasthenes describes Pataliputra as administered by a commission of 30 members, divided into 6 committees (5 members each):
1. Industrial Arts & crafts.
2. Welfare of Foreigners (foreign nationals).
3. Registration of Births and Deaths (demographic census).
4. Trade, Commerce, weights & measures.
5. Quality control and sale of manufactured goods.
6. Collection of 10% tax on sales (toll/tax on goods sold).

Two Types of Courts

• Dharmasthiya (Civil Courts): Handled personal, civil, and domestic disputes. Presided over by three Amatyas and three Vyavaharikas (Chief Judges).
• Kantakasodhana (Criminal Courts): Handled anti-social elements, crime, and disputes between state and citizens. Presided over by three Pradeshtri (Magistrates/Divisional Commissioners).

Taxation and Financial Terms

• Bhaga: Primary land tax, representing 1/4th to 1/6th of the total agricultural produce.
• Bali: Surcharge/religious tax, completely abolished by Ashoka in Lumbini.
• Hiranya: Land tax paid exclusively in gold/cash.
• Pranaya: Special emergency tax or gift tax levied by the state during crises.
• Pindakara: Consolidated tax paid in kind by an entire village collectively.
• Senabhaktam: Special tax levied on villages to maintain and supply troops passing through their territory.
• Parsvam: Surcharge or extra profit tax.
• Vartani: Road cess, transit tax, or toll collected on trade routes.
• Vishti: Form of unpaid forced labor extracted primarily from Shudras and slaves.
• Shulka: Customs duty or toll tax levied on commercial goods entering cities.

Key Tirthas (High officials) of Arthashastra

• Mantrin: Chief Minister
• Purohita: Chief Priest and state advisor
• Senapati: Commander-in-Chief of the military
• Yuvaraja: Crown Prince
• Dauvarika: Chamberlain / Palace Gatekeeper
• Antarvesika: Chief of the royal harem
• Prasastri: In charge of state records and prisons / Inspector General
• Samaharta: Collector-General of Revenue (managed national budget and assessments)
• Sanidhata: Chief Treasury Officer (CTO / Custodian of the national treasury)
• Pradeshtri: Divisional Commissioner / Magistrate of criminal courts

Key Adhyakshas (Superintendents)

• Sitadhyaksha: Superintendent of Agriculture (managed crown lands)
• Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of Mines and mineral extraction
• Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of Iron and metal manufacturing
• Lakshanadhyaksha: Superintendent of Mint (managed coin production)
• Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of Ships and water transport
• Panyadhyaksha: Superintendent of State Trade and Commerce
• Pautavadhyaksha: Superintendent of Weights and Measures
• Sulkadhyaksha: Superintendent of Tolls and Custom Duties
• Mudradhyaksha: Superintendent of Passports
• Ganikadhyaksha: Superintendent of Courtesans (regulated state-licensed prostitution)

The Espionage System (Spies)

Managed by the Mahamatya-pasarp (Head of the Intelligence Department). Spies were referred to as Gudhadapurushas (secret agents) or "miraculous men". They were categorized into:
* Sanstha (Stationary Spies): Spies operating from fixed stations (such as temples, shops, or schools).
* Sanchari (Touring Spies): Mobile agents who traveled extensively across the empire.
* Prativedaka: Special reporters who had direct, unrestricted access to the king to report public affairs.
* Vishkanya: Poisonous women utilized as assassins for high-profile political targets.